RARE -- CHAPTER 15 -- WHEN THE WELL RUNS DRY

CHAPTER 15 -- WHEN THE WELL RUNS DRY

In this chapter, the author summarizes where some of the potential new sources of rare earth metals may come from as the “well starts to run dry”.  The first place he pointed to is Antarctica.  The 1961 Atlantic Treaty fortified by the 1991 Madrid Protocol currently disallows any mining operations for profit on the continent.  It is known, however, from scientific explorations, that this ice-covered land mass has deposits of coal, natural gas, petroleum, gold, rare earth metals, and diamonds.  The next possible major new source could be Greenland.  In 2013, its parliament lifted a two-and-a-half decade ban on the mining of radioactive materials in the country, freeing up mining for rare earth metals which has not been possible before because of the presence of radioactive uranium in rare earth metals ores.  Early studies estimate the amount of rare earth metals to be enough to supply a quarter of the world needs in the next 50 years.  The author uses recent events in Greenland as a possible foretelling of how resource acquisition may proceed if the embargo on Antarctic exploration and extraction is lifted.  Along with metal ores, Greenland also has natural gas and oil reserves underneath its landmass 80%Vof which is covered in an ice sheet a few meters to 2 kilometers thick.  Any technology being used in Greenland to extract these deposits will be useful if Antarctica is opened up.

Outside of the potential for rare earths in Greenland and Antarctica, it is uncertain where else new deposits may exist.  One possible source is red mud waste in Jamaica.  A “fair” amount of rare earth metals may exist in Jamaica’s bauxite (an aluminum ore) waste red mud, a slurry of left-over metals and particulates from refining of bauxite.  The author argues that processing of red mud for its rare earth metal content would not result in significant new environmental impacts because the red mud can simply be re-pumped into the same holding tanks.  Thus, it could create a “’net good’ by making use of the stagnant waste to quench some of the world’s thirst for rare metals and possibly provide Jamaica with a revenue stream”.  In late 2013, a joint venture between the Jamaican government and a Japanese company opened a small red mud processing plant which Japan providing the cost for buildings and operating expenses.   Japan is also turning to the ocean floor to find deposits of rare earth metals.  Polymetallic nodules (size of a baseball) are known to inhabit the ocean floor, the largest amounts at depths of 2-3 miles.  These contain mostly manganese, some copper and cobalt, and small amounts of 11 of the 17 rare earth metals.  Efforts to extract these may rely on current underwater extraction technology for diamonds used by the de Beers Company.  According to the author, Japan’s motivation primarily arises from fear that China will withhold exports of rare earth metals.  The author concludes that underwater mining will face huge environmental resistance.  India is also studying the viability of mining polymetallic nodules from the ocean floor of the Indian Ocean.

·         In the beginning of the chapter, the author brings up the question of stewardship of Antactica and its potential vast resources.

·         The Atlantic Treaty of 1961 was the first modern agreement among countries banning military activity on its landmass and establishing a pro-science atmosphere of studying its unique environment.  In 1991, the Madrid Protocol strengthened agreements for the protection of its natural resources, mitigating and remediating waste buildup, and preventing exploration or mining for profit.  The Madrid Protocol comes up for renewal in 2048.

·         There are 12 [the book states 13, repeating Norway] countries currently laying claim to areas of Antarctica or are reserving the right to lay claim to an area as covered by the original provisions of the 1960 Antarctic Treaty:  UK, New Zealand, France, Norway, Australia, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Russia, South Africa, and the US.  Australia lays the largest claim, about 42% of the entire continent.

·         At the time of writing:  there are over 50 international research stations and 4000 in-house scientists including 3,000 sent by the US on the continent.

·         These scientific explorations have detected deposits of coal, natural gas, petroleum, gold, rare earth metals, and diamonds.

·         Greenland, straddling the Arctic Circle, is the biggest island in the world and has the lowest density population of 60,000.  In 2013, its parliament lifted a two-and-a-half decade ban on the mining of radioactive materials in the country, freeing up mining for rare earth metals which has not been possible before because of the presence of radioactive uranium in rare earth metals ores.  Early studies estimate the amount of rare earth metals to be enough to supply a quarter of the world needs in the next 50 years. 

·         The author uses recent events in Greenland as a possible foretelling of how resource acquisition may proceed if the embargo on Antarctic exploration and extraction is lifted.  Along with metal ores, Greenland also has natural gas and oil reserves underneath its landmass 80%Vof which is covered in an ice sheet a few meters to 2 kilometers thick.  Any technology being used in Greenland to extract these deposits will be useful if Antarctica is opened up.

·         Outside of the potential for rare earths in Greenland and Antarctica, it is uncertain where else new deposits may exist.  Some possibilities:

·         A “fair” amount of rare earth metals may exist in Jamaica’s bauxite (an aluminum ore) waste red mud (really a slurry of left-over metals and particulates from refining of bauxite).  This waste product is created from the Bayer process which separates aluminum containing compounds by mixing sodium hydroxide with crushed bauxite.  Red mud also contains iron (thus red) and titanium and small amounts of scandium and other rare earth metals.  The high acidic pH of red mud makes the area where the waste is stored unusable for farming or habitation.  To lower the pH, ocean water is mixed with the red mud, with the calcium and sodium salts reacting with the metal compounds in the slurry.  [calcium by precipitating hydroxides? Not sure about what sodium salts are being referred to; has to be acidic.]  The author argues that processing of red mud for its rare earth metal content would not result in significant new environmental impacts because the red mud can simply be re-pumped into the same holding tanks.  Thus, it could create a “’net good’ by making use of the stagnant waste to quench some of the world’s thirst for rare metals and possibly provide Jamaica with a revenue stream”.  In late 2013, a joint venture between the Jamaican government and a Japanese company opened a small red mud processing plant which Japan providing the cost for buildings and operating expenses.  Other countries that might benefit from a similar venture if successful are Australia, Vietnam, and West Africa’s Republic of Guinea.

·         Japan is turning to the ocean floor to find deposits of rare earth metals.  Polymetallic nodules (size of a baseball) are known to inhabit the ocean floor, the largest amounts at depths of 2-3 miles.  These contain mostly manganese, some copper and cobalt, and small amounts of 11 of the 17 rare earth metals.  It takes a million years for each nodule to grow half an inch in diameter.  Efforts to extract these may rely on current underwater extraction technology for diamonds used by the de Beers Company.  According to the author, Japan’s motivation primarily arises from fear that China will withhold exports of rare earth metals.  The author concludes that underwater mining will face huge environmental resistance.

·         India is also studying the viability of mining polymetallic nodules from the ocean floor of the Indian Ocean.