Book Reading Update - Fontana History of Chemistry Chap 8

With the emergence of a huge amount of chemical information, chemists put an effort into publishing dictionaries and other compendiums that provided a comprehensive view of the natural histories and properties of known chemical substances known up to that point.  The author, in particular singled out J.S. Muspratt’s Chemistry Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical as probably the most comprehensive and well-used publication, distinctive in its coverage of the practice of chemical technology “from acetic acid, alcohol, alum, and ammonia through to varnish water, wine and zinc”.  Two chemical industries that ushered the growth of commercial chemistry were highlighted: the production of alkali and synthetic dyestuffs and pharmaceuticals later on.

“During the first half of the nineteenth century, and even later, the alkali industry was the chemical industry,” (Hardie and Pratt, History of the Modern Chemical Industry (1966)).  The Leblanc alkali process dominated the scene for providing a workable synthetic pathway for sodium carbonate from sodium chloride.  This was replaced by the Solvay process later on which proved to be less wasteful and cheaper.  It was recognized even then that "the problems faced by the alkali industry, whether the Leblanc or Solvay processes, were essentially those of engineering rather than chemistry", citing such challenges as reducing and recycling waste, making safe dangerous procedures involving chemicals, and scaling laboratory design.

In the development of dyestuff synthetic chemistry, Hoffman was highlighted as a major player, with the author pointing out that all his students became dyestuff chemists.  The synthesis of dyesuff became a very lucrative industry that also led to the discovery of synthetic methods for pharmaceuticals. There was a relatively lengthy discussion of potential reasons for why Great Britain lost its hegemony on dyestuff industry to Germany, pointing out that, perhaps, one reason was that, unlike their British counterparts, Hoffman's German students (Hoffman taught in Britain and moved to Germany later on) placed great importance on continued chemical research based n Kekule's theory of structure as the secret to the commercial success of German chemical industries.

Toward the end, the author concludes the chapter with a brief commentary on the debate between a theory or practice-based education of chemists, reiterating that, in the end, engineering was also an important consideration.

Book Reading Update - Fontana History of Chemistry Chap 7

In Chapter 7, the author gave a detailed historical summary of the transition from mere classification using either the "radicalist" and "typist" view to a focus on constitutional and structural theory using concepts of the tetravalency of carbon and its tetrahedral geometric projection in 3-dimensional space.  Frankland and Kekule both played a role in bringing chemists to this level of structural conceptualization with Frankland's observations of the tri- and penta-valency of elements such as N and P although much of the distillation and refinement that brought chemists to a comfortable acceptance of structural theory is attributed to Kekule.  Ironically, despite being the more challenging concept in structural chemistry, much of the hypotheses and ideas on structure were derived from what were known about the existence of compounds that have different properties although they have the same constitution, the group of special compounds we refer to as isomers.  A teravalent carbon atom explained the existence of observed optical activity and non-activity between tartaric acid and "racemic" acid, we studied and differentiated by Pasteur on the basis of crystal shapes visualized under a microscope.  It was then determined that asymmetric carbon atoms that have four different groups around it will have optical activity unless a plane of symmetry exists within the molecule.  Even the deduction of the hexagonal shape of benzene was facilitated by reconciling predicted and experimentally observed numbers of isomers.  The impact of Kekule's and others' work on structure can best be described by the conclusion offered by the author at the end of the chapter: “Just as Picasso later transformed art by allowing the viewer to see within and behind things, so Kekule had transformed chemistry.  Chemical properties arose from the internal structures of molecules, which could now be ‘seen’ and ‘read’ through the experienced optic of the analytical and synthetic chemist.  The future of chemistry, as well as industry, after 1865 was indeed, to lie in structural chemistry at the sign of this hexagon.  But it was also to lie in a closer familiarity with physics, for it was this that provided a closer understanding of the combining capacities of atoms.”

Book Reading Update - Fontana History of Chemistry Chap 6

I finished reading Chapter 6 which detailed the development, evolution, and partial merging of the two primary classifications of organic compounds conceived in the 1800's.  Berzelius and followers championed a dualistic theory of classification by radicals based on the idea that every organic compound can be thought of as a combination of an electropositive radical and oxygen. This definition could not be supported by observations of substitution reactions in which an electronegative element replaces electropositive hydrogen.  Dumas followed by Laurent, Williamson, and finally Gerhardt were the key players in developing and refining the classification by types, based on a unitary theory that suggested that compounds of the same chemical type share similar fundamental chemical properties and that chemical behavior can be ascribed to the arrangements of atoms.  Gerhardt, in his 'new tye" theory, eventually suggested that all organic compounds can be ultimately classified based on four inorganic basis or types: water, ammonia, hydrogen, and hydrogen chloride, with each type being conceived as 'the unit of comparison for all bodies which, like [them], are susceptible of similar changes or result from similar changes".  It was stated, however, in the end that this form of classification held no structural significance to Gerhardt but eventually the "new type theory metamorphosed in to the structural theory of carbon compounds" in the hands of Kekule et al.

Book Reading Update - Chapter 6 Fontana History of Chemistry, first thoughts

CHAPTER 6 FONTANA HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY

I think this chapter will focus on discoveries of organic chemistry, in particular the organization and classification of the myriads of organic substances that have been discovered in the last several years.  Through this thorough organization and classification effort, I am guessing that they will come to a more refined and narrow definition of organic compounds beyond that as substances sourced from animals and vegetables.  It appears, so far, in the first few pages of the chapter that there emerged two primary schools of thought on how the classification is to be accomplished.

Book Reading Update - Fontana History of Chemistry CH 5

Chapter 5 (Instructions for the Analysis of Organic Bodies)details the developments during the 20th century with Liebig playing a focal role.  The author relates how challenges in impurity, lab apparatus and reagents, and technical difficulties of analysis were primary players in the tentative and slow development of organic chemistry.  The lack of a clear concept of purity made the study of substances hard, and generalizations on the distinction between compounds, elements, and mixtures were difficult to make.  The author gave a brief chronological account of the development of analytical methods which led to a more concrete conceptualization of purity. Dalton’s atomic theory and laws of stoichiometry (established through accurate analytical methods) became an integral part of quantitative analysis.  Cheaper and more accessible apparatus was developed when students where encouraged (primarily by John Griffin) to carry out personal experimentation.  The progress and expansion of organic analysis accelerated when Liebig developed a “sure-fire” method of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen determination in organic substances.  Through the promotion of chemistry as an experimental science, development of more accessible lab apparatus, his own teaching competence, and the infusion of government support for teaching and laboratories Liebig at the University of Giessen established a model institution for the teaching of practical chemistry.  By the middle of the 20th century, analytical chemistry has become a "commercial commodity and one in which chemical careers could be made".

Book Reading Update -- The Fontana History of Chemistry

I finished Chapter 4 which gave an account of the developments during the 19th century.  The main players presented by the author were Dalton and Berzelius.  The theme was on Dalton's extensive work on developing an "atomic theory" based on 4 assumptions and the distinction between chemical versus physical atomism.  Dalton developed his law of multiple proportions based on measurements he made and others made.  Because there was no physical evidence for a physical atom, most chemists were wary to accept this concept.  Instead, they stuck to the idea of chemical atomism as a basis for combining proportions and conceptualizing relative "atomic" or equivalent weights which Dalton came up with originally but others have supported.

Lab Manual Update

30A:

One of the instructors sent me feedback on Lab 10.2 and a list of typos and errors.

31:
I sent a request for review e-mail to most everyone who has taught the class before.  One of the instructors will send me copies of his scanned files and revisions he has made.

Book Reading Update -- The Fontana History of Chemistry

I finished reading and taking notes from Chapter 2 and am glad that the phlogiston theory only merited a few pages!

Book Reading Update -- The Fontana History of Chemistry

Finished Chapter 3 in which the author gives an account of Lavoisier's "chemical revolution" and the 6 important conditions that brought about this new chemistry.  Central to this are the organization and systematization of substances by Lavoisier and his defintion of an element and his demonstration of the gaseous state.  British pneumatic chemists such as Cavendish and Priestley, among others, played a big role in Lavoisier's accomplishments.

Book Reading Update - 5th Book: The Fontana History of Chemistry

I decided to discontinue reading Periodic Tales for now as I found myself constantly itching for more historical information to tie the discoveries and inventions of chemistry.

I decided to pick up another history of chemistry book, this time written in a more standard way.  The account is still quite condensed (despite its length of 700 or so pages!) but the continuity is more acceptable in terms of the central ideas and events and core historical context being treated, at least in the first chapter.  The length is quite intimidating so I will take it one chapter at a time.

I have finished reading (and taking notes) the first chapter dealing with the origins and demise of alchemy.  The author makes a point that while present chemistry knowledge and practice extracted a lot of its original ideas, equipment, and processes from alchemistry, it is not clear and arguable that alchemy led to chemistry.

Lab Manual Update - 30A

Anthony sent me a page of notes on suggestions, typos, and errors.  He also sent me feedback regarding lab 10.2, pipet or buret?

Book Reading Update

I started reading Periodic Tales as my fifth book but it has not engaged me in a way that I feel drawn to new things I might learn.  The book sounds well-researched but it is written in a way that stories and little tidbits seem to flow without organization. I find myself coming to an anecdote that would turn out to be only 4-5 sentences long keeping me hanging.  I was looking for a more organized description of the history, discovery properties, and uses of each element.  But, rather, the book is truly an account (a bit disjointed at that) of the cultural histories of the elements, how they have been used in literature and art, stories, politics, and yes, in the actual history of the world.  Maybe, the book lively history has left me still hungry for details and so back to some searching.

I read the bibliography of the same book and came up with the following potential reading candidates:

“Gordin, Michael D., A Well-Ordered Thing: Dmitrii Mendeleev and the Shadow of the Periodic Table (New York: Basic, 2004)”

“Brock, William H., The Fontana History of Chemistry (London: Fontana, 1992)”

“Emsley, John, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)”

“Greenberg, Arthur, The Art of Chemistry (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003)”

“Scerri, Eric R., The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)”

“Strathern, Paul, Mendeleyev’s Dream: The Quest for the Elements (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2000)”

“Trifonov, D. N., and V. D. Trifonov, Chemical Elements: How They Were Discovered (Moscow: Mir, 1982”

Book Reading Update - Annotated Bibiography

I finished cleaning up and organizing my notes and merged them into a draft of the annotated bibliography of the books for my sabbatical reading.  I have completed 4 books so far.  I kept my copious notes from the Lively History book as a separate attachment because it is quite long, 53 pages of notes!

I may have mentioned it already but I have chosen Periodic Tales by Aldersey for my next history of chemistry reading.

Lab Manual Update

I finished the first draft of the revision of Lab 5.2, synthesis of a copper-sulfide compound. I suggested archiving it but one instructors suggested keeping it as an option for the future.

Book Reading Update

 I finished reading and taking copious notes from the Lively History of Chemistry a couple of days ago.

I have started reading Periodic Tales.

I am cleaning up my notes to organize an annotate bibliography and summary chapters for the 4 books I have read so far.